Early Nationalism & INC Formation

Introduction

The Indian National Congress, founded in 1885, was the institutional vehicle that carried India from scattered discontent to organised political struggle. But the journey from moderate petitions to mass movements was neither linear nor peaceful. This chapter traces the birth of Indian nationalism from its intellectual roots in economic critique, through the moderate era of constitutional politics, the fiery extremist phase ignited by Bengal's partition, the emergence of communal politics through separate electorates, and the Home Rule movement that first brought the demand for self-governance to the Indian masses. Understanding this arc is essential because every subsequent movement — Gandhian, revolutionary, or regional — built upon the organisational and ideological foundations laid during this period.

Historical Context

By the 1870s, several factors had converged to create a politically conscious Indian elite. English education had produced lawyers, journalists, and civil servants who understood Western political philosophy. British economic exploitation — documented by Dadabhai Naoroji's "Drain Theory" and R.C. Dutt's Economic History of India — provided intellectual ammunition. The Ilbert Bill controversy of 1883 — which proposed allowing Indian judges to try Europeans and was defeated by European opposition — crystallised the need for an all-India political body. The Indian Association, founded in 1876 by Surendranath Banerjee and Ananda Mohan Bose in Calcutta, was the first major political organisation, but it was regional. India needed a national platform.

Core Content

Formation of the Indian National Congress (1885)

The Indian National Congress was founded on 28 December 1885 at the Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College in Bombay. Seventy-two delegates from across India attended the first session. Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British civil servant, was the chief organiser. W.C. Bonnerjee was elected the first President.

The second session (1886) was held in Calcutta under Dadabhai Naoroji's presidency. Badruddin Tyabji presided over the third session (1887) in Madras — becoming the first Muslim president of the INC.

The Moderate Phase (1885-1905)

The Moderates believed in constitutional methods: petitions, memoranda, resolutions, and delegations to London. They sought Dominion Status within the British Empire, not complete independence.

Key moderate leaders included Dadabhai Naoroji (who was elected to the British House of Commons in 1892 as the first Indian MP, representing Central Finsbury), Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Pherozeshah Mehta, Surendranath Banerjee, and W.C. Bonnerjee.

Their main demands were expansion of legislative councils, Indianisation of civil services, and reduction of military expenditure. The Indian Councils Act of 1892 expanded legislative councils but gave very limited powers.

Gokhale founded the Servants of India Society in 1905 for social reform and public service. The Moderates' greatest limitation was their narrow social base — they represented only the educated elite, not the masses. Their critics called their approach "mendicant" (begging) politics.

Partition of Bengal & the Swadeshi Movement (1905)

Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal on 16 October 1905, dividing it into Muslim-majority East Bengal and Hindu-majority West Bengal. The ostensible reason was "administrative efficiency" for a province of 78 million people. The real motive was to divide Hindu-Muslim unity and weaken nationalism.

16 October 1905 was observed as a day of national mourning, with Raksha Bandhan celebrated as a symbol of unity. The Swadeshi Movement that followed was India's first mass economic protest:

• British goods were publicly burned in bonfires
• Shops selling foreign products were picketed
• Swadeshi factories were established — Bande Mataram Cotton Mills, Bengal Chemical Works (P.C. Ray)
• Bengal National College was founded in 1906 with Aurobindo Ghosh as principal
• Vande Mataram (from Bankim Chandra Chatterjee's novel Anandamath) became the rallying cry

Bengal's partition was annulled in December 1911 by King George V at the Delhi Durbar.

The Extremist Phase (1905-1919)

The extremist or militant nationalist leaders — Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Maharashtra), Lala Lajpat Rai (Punjab), and Bipin Chandra Pal (Bengal), known as the "Lal-Bal-Pal" trio — demanded Swaraj (self-rule), not dominion status.

Tilak's famous slogan was: "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it." He used Ganapati and Shivaji festivals to mobilise the masses in Maharashtra. The extremists' methods included boycott, Swadeshi, national education, passive resistance, and mass mobilisation.

The Surat Split (1907) was a defining moment: the INC split between moderates and extremists at the Surat session over the presidency issue. Tilak was arrested in 1908 and sentenced to 6 years' imprisonment in Mandalay (Burma). Aurobindo Ghosh was arrested in the Alipore Bomb Case (1908) but later acquitted; he withdrew to Pondicherry.

Muslim League & Morley-Minto Reforms

The All India Muslim League was founded on 30 December 1906 at Dhaka by Nawab Salimullah. The Morley-Minto Reforms (Indian Councils Act 1909) expanded legislative councils but introduced separate electorates for Muslims — meaning only Muslim voters could elect Muslim representatives. This institutionalised communal politics and would have far-reaching consequences for India's political future.

The Home Rule Movement (1916)

Tilak established his Home Rule League in April 1916, working in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Central Provinces, and Berar. Annie Besant established the All India Home Rule League in September 1916, operating across the rest of India. Their combined membership reached approximately 60,000 — making it the first organised demand for self-governance within the British Empire.

Annie Besant was interned by the Madras Government in June 1917, which only increased public support for the movement. The result was the Montagu Declaration (August 1917), in which the British declared the goal of "increasing association of Indians in every branch of administration."

Lucknow Pact & Congress Reunification (1916)

The Lucknow Pact (1916) was a historic Congress-Muslim League agreement on shared political demands. It was brokered by Tilak (Congress) and Muhammad Ali Jinnah (League) — Jinnah was called the "Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity." Key provisions: Congress accepted separate electorates; one-third Muslim seats in central legislature; joint demand for self-government. The Congress itself reunited at Lucknow, with moderates and extremists coming together.

Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms & the Rowlatt Act

The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (Government of India Act 1919) introduced "dyarchy" — dividing provincial subjects into "reserved" (under British control) and "transferred" (under Indian ministers).

The Rowlatt Act (March 1919) allowed detention without trial for up to two years with no right of appeal. Indians called it the "Black Act." Gandhi launched the Rowlatt Satyagraha — a nationwide hartal on 6 April 1919.

The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919) was the turning point. General Dyer ordered firing on an unarmed crowd at Amritsar gathered peacefully for the Baisakhi festival in a walled garden with limited exits. Approximately 379 were killed (official figures) or 1,000+ (Indian estimates). Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest.

AP Connection

Andhra leaders were involved in the INC from its earliest years. T. Prakasam, Konda Venkatappaiah, and Nyapathi Subba Rao attended Congress sessions from 1885 onwards. Gadicherla Harisarvottama Rao (1883-1960) was a prominent early nationalist from Andhra who attended INC sessions and later became a key figure in the Andhra state movement. The organisational networks built during this period — Congress committees in Guntur, Krishna, and Godavari districts — became the infrastructure for later mass movements in Andhra.

Key Points

1. Indian National Congress founded 28 December 1885 at Bombay; W.C. Bonnerjee was the first President.
2. A.O. Hume — retired British civil servant — was the chief organiser of the INC.
3. Moderates sought Dominion Status through constitutional methods: petitions, memoranda, delegations.
4. Dadabhai Naoroji — first Indian MP in British Parliament (1892, Central Finsbury).
5. Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal on 16 October 1905 — triggered the Swadeshi Movement.
6. Vande Mataram became the rallying cry; Swadeshi launched the first mass economic protest.
7. Bengal partition annulled in December 1911 at the Delhi Durbar.
8. "Lal-Bal-Pal" trio: Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal.
9. Tilak's slogan: "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it."
10. Surat Split (1907): Congress divided between moderates and extremists.
11. Muslim League founded 30 December 1906 at Dhaka by Nawab Salimullah.
12. Morley-Minto Reforms (1909) introduced separate electorates for Muslims.
13. Home Rule Leagues: Tilak (April 1916) and Annie Besant (September 1916).
14. Lucknow Pact (1916): Congress-League agreement; Jinnah = "Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity."
15. Rowlatt Act (1919) — "Black Act" — detention without trial.
16. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919): General Dyer fired on unarmed crowd at Amritsar.
17. Tagore renounced knighthood after Jallianwala Bagh.
18. GoI Act 1919 introduced dyarchy — "reserved" and "transferred" subjects.

Exam Strategy

• INC formation details are asked frequently: 1885, Bombay, Bonnerjee (first president), Hume (organiser), 72 delegates.
• Moderate vs. Extremist: Know the leaders, methods, and goals of each. Moderates = petitions; Extremists = boycott + Swadeshi.
• Surat Split (1907) is a commonly asked event — know it split Congress between moderates and extremists.
• Separate electorates introduced by Morley-Minto Reforms (1909) — this is the beginning of communal politics.
• Lucknow Pact (1916): Know the two sides (Tilak + Jinnah) and that Congress accepted separate electorates.
• Jallianwala Bagh: Know the date (13 April 1919), the general (Dyer), the festival (Baisakhi), and Tagore's renunciation.
• Chronology: Partition of Bengal (1905) > Muslim League (1906) > Surat Split (1907) > Morley-Minto (1909) > Home Rule (1916) > Lucknow Pact (1916) > Rowlatt Act (1919).

Key Terms Glossary