Mughal Empire (1526-1857)

Subject: History | Unit: Medieval India | Topic: Mughal Empire Exam: AP Group 2 (APPSC) Prerequisites: Delhi Sultanate

Introduction

The Mughal Empire was the most powerful and culturally productive dynasty in Indian history. Spanning over 330 years, it created administrative systems (mansabdari), architectural masterpieces (Taj Mahal, Red Fort), and a syncretic cultural tradition that permanently shaped the subcontinent. At its peak under Aurangzeb, the empire covered nearly all of modern India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh.

For AP Group 2 candidates, the Mughal chapter is critical because Aurangzeb's Deccan campaigns directly shaped Andhra Pradesh's political landscape — the annexation of Golconda (1687), the founding of the Hyderabad state (1724), and the Carnatic Nawabs all flow from Mughal history.

Historical Context

The Mughal Empire was born from the collapse of the Delhi Sultanate. When Babur — a Central Asian prince descended from both Timur and Genghis Khan — defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat (1526), he established a dynasty that would transform India's governance from a collection of regional kingdoms into a centralised imperial state. The word "Mughal" itself derives from "Mongol," reflecting the dynasty's Turko-Mongol origins.

The empire faced recurring challenges: succession wars (every generation produced a fratricidal contest), Rajput resistance, the Deccan question (how to control the south), and the growing European maritime presence. The first four emperors solved these problems creatively; the later ones could not.

Core Content

Babur (1526-1530): The Founder

Babur was a cultured warrior-prince who had lost his ancestral kingdom of Fergana in Central Asia. He turned to India as a last resort.

Three Decisive Battles:

Babur's autobiography, the Baburnama (Tuzuk-i-Baburi), written in Chagatai Turkish, ranks among the finest autobiographies in world literature. He introduced a centralised state based on the "strength and prestige of the Crown" rather than religious authority.

Humayun (1530-1540, 1555-1556): The Lost and Found Emperor

Humayun inherited his father's empire but lost it within a decade.

The Sher Shah Interlude:

• Humayun was defeated by Sher Shah Suri at the battles of Chausa (1539) and Kanauj (1540)
• Spent 15 years in exile in Persia
• Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545) left a lasting administrative legacy: the Grand Trunk Road, postal system (dak chauki), and reformed revenue system
• Humayun recaptured Delhi in 1555 with Safavid (Persian) support
• Died in 1556 from an accidental fall from his library stairs

Humayun's Tomb (1565-1572, Delhi): Built by his wife Hamida Banu Begum. First garden tomb in India and the prototype for the Taj Mahal.

Akbar (1556-1605): The Great

Akbar became emperor at age 13 after Humayun's sudden death. His regent Bairam Khan won the Second Battle of Panipat (1556) against Hemu, securing Mughal rule.

Military Conquests

Akbar's reign divides into three phases:

1. Military expansion (1556-1570): Conquered Chittor (1568), Ranthambhor (1569)
2. Consolidation (1570-1585): Gujarat, Bihar, Bengal, Orissa campaigns
3. Deccan campaigns (1585-1605): Kashmir, Kabul, and southern expansion

The Mansabdari System

Akbar's most important administrative innovation. Every officer received a mansab (rank) with two designations:

Mansabdars received their salaries as jagir (revenue assignments from land) rather than cash. Unlike iqtadars of the Sultanate, mansabdars did not directly administer their jagirs — they were frequently transferred to prevent independent power bases.

Comparison: Iqta System vs Mansabdari System

Provincial Administration

Revenue System: Zabt/Dahsala (1580)

Developed by Todar Mal, this system was based on:

• 10-year average crop yields and prices
• Careful survey of agricultural land
• Revenue fixed per crop per region
• Zamindars served as intermediaries between state and peasants, collecting and remitting land revenue

Religious Policy

The Navratnas (Nine Gems)

Fatehpur Sikri (1571-1585): Akbar's capital, built in honour of Sufi saint Sheikh Salim Chishti. The complex includes the Buland Darwaza (54m, tallest gateway in the world at the time), Panch Mahal, and the tomb of Salim Chishti.

Jahangir (1605-1627): The Aesthete

Jahangir continued Akbar's policy of sulh-i-kul. His reign is characterised by:

• Painting zenith: Mughal miniature painting reached its peak — naturalistic portraits, animal studies, botanical illustrations
• Nur Jahan: His wife wielded significant political influence, often considered the real power behind the throne
• Military record: Mixed — Mewar's Amar Singh submitted, but struggles against Sikhs, Ahoms, and Ahmadnagar
• Autobiography: Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri records his keen interest in nature, animals, and art

Mughal painting began under Humayun (who brought Persian artists Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad from Iran). Akbar's atelier (karkhana) employed over 100 painters — both Hindu and Muslim — producing illustrated manuscripts like the Hamzanama. Under Jahangir, the style blended Persian, Indian, Chinese, and Renaissance European elements into a uniquely Indian miniature tradition.

Shah Jahan (1627-1658): The Builder

Shah Jahan's reign is the Golden Age of Mughal Architecture.

Architectural Masterpieces

Shah Jahan moved the capital from Agra to the newly built Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi) in 1648.

Military failures: Failed to recapture Balkh from Uzbeks; lost Kandahar to the Safavids.

He was imprisoned by his son Aurangzeb in 1658 and died in captivity at Agra Fort in 1666.

Mughal architecture fused Persian, Central Asian, and Indian styles — characterised by bulbous domes, minarets, large halls, massive gateways, and intricate pietra dura (inlay work).

Aurangzeb (1658-1707): The Zealot

The longest-reigning Mughal emperor (49 years). Under him, the empire reached its maximum territorial extent — and began its irreversible decline.

Seizure of Power: Won a war of succession against brothers Dara Shikoh, Shah Shuja, and Murad Baksh. Executed Dara Shikoh — a pivotal moment that changed the trajectory of religious policy in India.

Religious Policy Reversal:

• Reimposed jiziya (1679) on non-Muslims, reversing Akbar's policy
• Banned music and art at court
• Ordered destruction of several Hindu temples

Deccan Campaigns (1682-1707):

• Spent the last 25 years in the Deccan fighting the Marathas — the "Deccan ulcer" that drained the empire
• Annexed Bijapur (1686)
• Annexed Golconda (1687) — ending the Qutub Shahi dynasty

Other Conflicts:

• Defeated the Ahoms (1663) but they rebelled again
• Faced revolts from Sikhs, Jats, Satnamis, and Rajputs

Jagirdari Crisis: The mansabdari system strained under Aurangzeb — too many mansabdars chasing too few jagirs. This systemic failure undermined the entire administrative structure.

Later Mughals and Decline (1707-1857)

After Aurangzeb's death, the empire fragmented rapidly:

Causes of Decline:

1. Jagirdari crisis — systemic administrative failure
2. Deccan wars — 25-year military drain
3. Maratha resistance — continuous guerrilla warfare
4. Provincial independence — centrifugal forces
5. Religious policy reversal — alienated Hindu subjects
6. Succession wars — every generation

AP Connection

The Mughal Empire shaped Andhra Pradesh's political destiny in direct and lasting ways:

1. Golconda Annexation (1687): Aurangzeb ended the Qutub Shahi dynasty (169 years of rule) — this is a top AP-specific PYQ topic. The Qutub Shahi architecture of Golconda/Hyderabad blends Deccan, Persian, and Mughal styles.

2. Hyderabad State Founded (1724): After Aurangzeb's death, the Mughal governor of the Deccan, Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I, established the independent state of Hyderabad — which would rule AP/Telangana until 1948.

3. Carnatic Nawabs: Mughal subadars of the Carnatic region (coastal AP/TN) became effectively independent after Mughal decline. They became key players in the Anglo-French rivalry.

4. Deccan Wars Devastation: Aurangzeb's prolonged campaigns (1682-1707) devastated agriculture and trade in the AP/Telangana region.

5. Administrative Legacy: Mughal revenue terminology (jagir, zamindar, mansab) entered Telugu administrative vocabulary and persisted under the Nizams. Akbar's mansabdari system influenced the administrative structures adopted by the Qutub Shahis and later the Asaf Jahi Nizams.

6. Revenue Farming: The Mughal system of revenue farming (ijara) in AP territories led to peasant exploitation under later Nizam rule.

Master Timeline

Key Points for Revision

1. Babur founded the Mughal Empire in 1526 by defeating Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat using gunpowder artillery (first cannon use in India).
2. Babur was descended from Timur (father's side) and Genghis Khan (mother's side).
3. Humayun lost the empire to Sher Shah Suri (1540), spent 15 years in exile, recaptured Delhi (1555).
4. Sher Shah Suri built the Grand Trunk Road and reformed the revenue system during his brief rule.
5. Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system: zat (personal rank) + sawar (cavalry rank).
6. Akbar's Dahsala/Zabt revenue system (1580) by Todar Mal used 10-year crop averages.
7. Akbar's religious policy: Sulh-i-Kul (Universal Peace), abolished jiziya, Din-i-Ilahi (1582).
8. Fatehpur Sikri: Buland Darwaza (54m), tomb of Salim Chishti, Panch Mahal.
9. Jahangir's reign = zenith of Mughal miniature painting. Nur Jahan wielded real political power.
10. Shah Jahan = Golden Age of Mughal Architecture: Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Jama Masjid, Peacock Throne.
11. Aurangzeb reigned 49 years — longest Mughal ruler; empire reached maximum territorial extent.
12. Aurangzeb reimposed jiziya (1679), reversing Akbar's tolerant policy.
13. Aurangzeb annexed Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687) in the Deccan.
14. The "Deccan ulcer" — 25 years of Maratha wars — drained the empire.
15. Nadir Shah looted Delhi (1739), taking the Peacock Throne and Koh-i-Noor diamond.
16. Nizam-ul-Mulk founded independent Hyderabad (1724) after Mughal decline.
17. Jagirdari crisis — too many mansabdars, too few jagirs — systemic administrative collapse.
18. Bahadur Shah Zafar was the last Mughal; exiled to Rangoon after 1857 Revolt.

Exam Strategy

Question Patterns

Exam Tips

• Know all 6 major Mughal emperors with dates and one key achievement each — this is the minimum.
• Mansabdari system: zat = personal rank, sawar = cavalry rank. This distinction is very frequently asked.
• Shah Jahan = architecture; Jahangir = painting. Do not mix these up.
• Aurangzeb's Golconda annexation (1687) is an AP-specific PYQ favourite.
• Decline causes: jagirdari crisis, Deccan wars, Maratha resistance, provincial independence.
• Akbar's three big policies: Sulh-i-Kul, Din-i-Ilahi, jiziya abolition.

Key Terms Glossary