Independence & Partition

Introduction

India's independence on 15 August 1947 was both a triumph and a tragedy. The triumph was the end of nearly two centuries of colonial rule. The tragedy was the partition — the division of the subcontinent into India and Pakistan along religious lines, triggering the largest mass migration in human history (14-15 million displaced) and communal violence that killed between 200,000 and 2 million people. This chapter covers the final act of the freedom struggle: the Cabinet Mission, Direct Action, the Mountbatten Plan, the Radcliffe Line, independence, and the integration of princely states. For AP aspirants, the Hyderabad accession story — the Nizam's resistance, the Razakar terror, and Operation Polo — is the critical AP-specific content.

Historical Context

Britain emerged from World War II (1945) economically devastated and could no longer sustain its colonial administration. The Labour Party under Clement Attlee won the 1945 UK elections — it was more sympathetic to Indian self-rule than Churchill's Conservatives. Two events in India demonstrated that British authority was collapsing: the INA trials at Red Fort (1945-46), which galvanised public opinion, and the Royal Indian Navy (RIN) Mutiny in February 1946, which showed the British could no longer rely on Indian armed forces' loyalty. The question was no longer whether Britain would leave India, but how — and whether India would remain united.

Core Content

The Cabinet Mission (1946)

In March 1946, the British government sent the Cabinet Mission — three ministers: Lord Pethick-Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps, and A.V. Alexander — to negotiate the transfer of power.

The Cabinet Mission Plan (16 May 1946) proposed a united India with a weak centre in a three-tier structure: Union (defence, foreign affairs, communications), Groups of Provinces, and individual Provinces. The provinces were divided into three groups: Group A (Hindu-majority: Madras, Bombay, UP, Bihar, CP, Orissa), Group B (Muslim-majority northwest), and Group C (Bengal and Assam). The plan rejected a separate Pakistan but offered substantial Muslim autonomy through grouping.

Both Congress and the Muslim League initially accepted the plan. However, on 10 July 1946, Jawaharlal Nehru declared that Congress was "free to change or modify" the plan — effectively rejecting compulsory grouping. This statement was a turning point. Jinnah withdrew the Muslim League's acceptance and called for "Direct Action."

Direct Action & Communal Violence

Direct Action Day (16 August 1946): The Muslim League called a general strike to demand Pakistan. In Calcutta, the "Great Calcutta Killing" erupted — over 4,000 people were killed and 100,000 left homeless in 72 hours of communal rioting.

The violence spread: Noakhali riots (October 1946) targeted the Hindu population in Bengal — Gandhi walked from village to village in Noakhali for peace. Bihar saw retaliatory violence. Rawalpindi massacres (March 1947) targeted Sikh and Hindu communities in Punjab. The subcontinent was descending into civil war.

The Interim Government

An Interim Government was formed on 2 September 1946 under Jawaharlal Nehru as Vice-President of the Executive Council (de facto Prime Minister). The Muslim League joined on 26 October 1946 but obstructed its working. Liaquat Ali Khan, given the Finance portfolio, used his position to block Congress initiatives.

The Mountbatten Plan

Lord Mountbatten was appointed as the last Viceroy in February 1947 with a mandate to transfer power by June 1948. Recognising the urgency, he advanced the date — announcing independence on 15 August 1947, over 10 months early.

The Mountbatten Plan (3 June Plan, 1947) announced the partition of India into two dominions — India and Pakistan. Punjab and Bengal assemblies would vote on partition of their provinces. Princely states were given the choice to join India, join Pakistan, or remain independent. Referendums would be held in NWFP and Sylhet (Assam).

Both Congress and the Muslim League accepted. Congress accepted partition reluctantly — Sardar Patel was the first Congress leader to accept it, arguing it was necessary to avoid civil war.

The Indian Independence Act 1947

The Indian Independence Act was passed by the British Parliament on 18 July 1947. It created two independent dominions — India and Pakistan — effective from 15 August 1947. Each dominion would have its own Constituent Assembly and Governor-General. British suzerainty over 565 princely states was terminated. The Government of India Act 1935 would serve as the interim constitution until new constitutions were framed.

The Radcliffe Line

The Boundary Commission was headed by Sir Cyril Radcliffe — a London barrister who had never visited India. Two commissions were established: one for Punjab (4 members) and one for Bengal (4 members), each with 2 Congress and 2 Muslim League nominees.

Radcliffe had just 5 weeks to draw boundaries dividing 88 million people in Punjab and Bengal. Punjab was divided into East Punjab (India) and West Punjab (Pakistan). Bengal was divided into West Bengal (India) and East Bengal (East Pakistan, later Bangladesh). The boundary award was announced on 17 August 1947 — two days after independence — to prevent pre-partition migration. The Radcliffe Line cut through villages, fields, and even houses with no regard for local geography or communities.

Independence Day

Pakistan celebrated independence on 14 August 1947 — Jinnah was sworn in as Governor-General in Karachi. India celebrated on 15 August 1947. Jawaharlal Nehru delivered his iconic "Tryst with Destiny" speech at midnight in Parliament: "At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom."

Lord Mountbatten served as the first Governor-General of independent India until June 1948. C. Rajagopalachari succeeded him as the last Governor-General of India (1948-1950).

The Horror of Partition

Partition triggered the largest mass migration in human history — 14 to 15 million people displaced. Between 200,000 and 2 million people were killed in communal violence, primarily in Punjab and Bengal. The Punjab Boundary Force (55,000 troops) was deployed but was overwhelmed. Approximately 75,000 women were abducted, with widespread sexual violence from all communities. Refugee columns stretched for miles — people walked for weeks carrying whatever they could.

Gandhi fasted in Calcutta in September 1947 to stop communal riots and achieved remarkable peace in the city.

Integration of Princely States

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and V.P. Menon led the integration of 565 princely states into India. Junagadh, Hyderabad, and Kashmir were the three most problematic accessions.

AP Connection

Hyderabad's Accession: The Nizam of Hyderabad, Osman Ali Khan, wanted to remain independent or join Pakistan. The Razakars — the Nizam's militia under Qasim Razvi — terrorised the population in the Telangana region, attacking Hindus and anyone supporting merger with India.

Swami Ramananda Tirtha led the Hyderabad State Congress, established in 1938. He was imprisoned for 111 days by the Nizam for his activities. He was instrumental in mobilising resistance against the Nizam's rule and building the case for Hyderabad's integration with India.

Hyderabad was finally integrated through "Operation Polo" (Police Action) in September 1948 — Indian armed forces entered Hyderabad, and the Nizam surrendered within days. This ended the last major holdout against Indian unity and brought the Telugu-speaking Telangana region under Indian democratic governance.

Key Points

1. Britain emerged from WWII economically devastated; Labour Party (Attlee) won 1945 UK elections.
2. RIN Mutiny (February 1946) showed British could no longer rely on Indian military loyalty.
3. Cabinet Mission (1946) proposed united India with weak centre; both parties initially accepted.
4. Nehru's 10 July 1946 speech — "free to change" — led Jinnah to call for Direct Action.
5. Great Calcutta Killing (16 August 1946): 4,000+ killed in 72 hours.
6. Mountbatten Plan (3 June 1947): partition into India and Pakistan.
7. Indian Independence Act passed 18 July 1947; independence on 15 August 1947.
8. Radcliffe drew the boundary in 5 weeks — had never visited India.
9. Boundary announced 17 August 1947 — two days AFTER independence.
10. Nehru's "Tryst with Destiny" speech at midnight, 15 August 1947.
11. Partition: 14-15 million displaced; 200,000 to 2 million killed.
12. 75,000 women abducted during partition violence.
13. Gandhi fasted in Calcutta (September 1947) to stop riots — achieved peace.
14. Patel and V.P. Menon integrated 565 princely states.
15. Hyderabad: Nizam wanted independence; Razakars terrorised Telangana.
16. Operation Polo (September 1948) — Indian forces integrated Hyderabad.
17. Swami Ramananda Tirtha led Hyderabad State Congress; imprisoned 111 days.
18. Mountbatten was first Governor-General; Rajagopalachari was the last.

Exam Strategy

• Cabinet Mission Plan (1946): Know the three-tier structure and the grouping of provinces. Know that both Congress and League initially accepted, and Nehru's July statement caused the breakdown.
• Direct Action Day = 16 August 1946 = Great Calcutta Killing: These three facts are inseparable.
• Mountbatten Plan = 3 June Plan: Know the key provisions — partition, princely states' choice, provincial voting.
• Indian Independence Act dates: Passed 18 July 1947; effective 15 August 1947.
• Radcliffe: Never visited India; 5 weeks; boundary announced 2 days AFTER independence.
• For AP: Hyderabad = Nizam + Razakars + Ramananda Tirtha + Operation Polo (September 1948). This is a heavily tested AP-specific topic.
• Sequence: Cabinet Mission (1946) > Interim Government > Direct Action > Mountbatten Plan (June 1947) > Independence Act (July) > Independence (August) > Partition violence > Operation Polo (1948).

Key Terms Glossary