Vijayanagara Empire (1336-1646)

Subject: History | Unit: Medieval India | Topic: Vijayanagara Empire Exam: AP Group 2 (APPSC) Prerequisites: Delhi Sultanate

Introduction

The Vijayanagara Empire is the single most important chapter for AP Group 2 in medieval Indian history. This was the greatest Hindu empire of South India, a bulwark against northern Muslim expansion, and the cradle of the Golden Age of Telugu literature. Its founder Krishnadevaraya is titled "Andhra Pitamaha" (Grandfather of the Telugu people), all eight of his legendary Ashtadiggaja court poets were from present-day Andhra Pradesh, and its capital Hampi — now a UNESCO World Heritage Site — was once larger than contemporary Rome.

Every AP Group 2 exam tests Vijayanagara heavily: the Ashtadiggajas and their works, Krishnadevaraya's titles and achievements, the Battle of Talikota, the Amara-Nayaka system, and the architectural wonders of Hampi. This chapter is your highest-return investment in the entire history syllabus.

Historical Context

By the early 14th century, the Delhi Sultanate's Deccan campaigns had devastated South India's political order. The Kakatiya kingdom of Warangal fell in 1323. The Yadavas of Devagiri, Hoysalas, and Pandyas had all been crushed or reduced to vassals. A political vacuum existed south of the Krishna-Tungabhadra rivers.

Into this vacuum stepped two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, guided by the sage Vidyaranya of Sringeri. In 1336, they founded the city of Vijayanagara ("City of Victory") on the south bank of the Tungabhadra River — modern Hampi in Karnataka. The empire would endure for 310 years across four dynasties, standing as the last great Hindu power of the south.

The empire's perennial rival was the Bahmani Sultanate (and later its five successor states: Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golconda, Bidar, Berar). The disputed Raichur Doab — the fertile land between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers — was the primary zone of conflict.

Core Content

The Four Dynasties

Sangama Dynasty (1336-1485)

The founding dynasty, named after the brothers' father Sangama.

Harihara I (1336-1356): Founded the empire with his brother Bukka. Established initial territorial control south of the Tungabhadra.

Bukka I (1356-1377): Consolidated the empire. The spiritual guru Vidyaranya (Sage of Sringeri) is traditionally credited with inspiring the brothers to found the empire.

Deva Raya I (1406-1422): Fought wars against the Bahmani Sultanate over the Raichur Doab. Improved irrigation with a dam across the Tungabhadra. The Italian traveller Nicolo de Conti visited his court (c. 1420) and described the city's prosperity.

Deva Raya II (1422-1446): The most powerful Sangama ruler. Built the famous Vittala Temple at Hampi. Employed Muslim soldiers and archers — a pragmatic military innovation. The Persian ambassador Abdur Razzaq visited during his reign and documented the empire's extensive reach and magnificent capital.

The Sangama dynasty declined due to succession disputes and Bahmani military pressure.

Saluva Dynasty (1485-1505)

The shortest dynasty — just 20 years.

Saluva Narasimha seized power from the weakened Sangama rulers. However, his general Tuluva Narasa Nayaka held real power as regent. The dynasty served as a brief bridge to the Tuluva era.

Tuluva Dynasty (1505-1570): The Golden Age

Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529): The Greatest King

Krishnadevaraya is the central figure of Vijayanagara history and the most important ruler for AP Group 2 preparation. The empire reached its absolute zenith under his rule.

Titles:

• "Abhinava Bhoja" — New Bhoja (comparing him to the legendary scholar-king Bhoja)
• "Andhra Pitamaha" — Grandfather of the Andhra/Telugu people

Military Conquests:

Religious Policy: Though a Vaishnava (devotee of Vishnu), Krishnadevaraya respected all religions and made grants to temples of all sects.

Literary Achievement: Krishnadevaraya was himself a poet and author:

• Amuktamalyada — Telugu classic about the Alvar saint Andal
• Jambavati Kalyanam — Sanskrit work
• Ushaparinayam — Sanskrit work

The Portuguese traveller Domingo Paes visited during Krishnadevaraya's reign and described Vijayanagara as "the best provided city in the world."

Achyuta Raya (1529-1542): Krishnadevaraya's brother. Unable to control the rising power of Aliya Rama Raya, who became the de facto ruler.

The Ashtadiggajas: Eight Elephants Guarding Eight Directions

The Ashtadiggajas were eight eminent Telugu poets in Krishnadevaraya's court. Their name means "Eight Elephants Guarding the Eight Directions" — signifying their unmatched literary stature. All eight were from present-day Andhra Pradesh.

This is the number one PYQ topic from Vijayanagara for AP exams. Memorise all eight names, works, and AP locations.

The Prabandha Genre: The Vijayanagara period is the Golden Age of Telugu literature. The dominant genre was the Prabandha — fictional narratives based on puranic stories with creative modifications. Literature flourished in four languages (Telugu, Kannada, Sanskrit, Tamil), but Telugu gained the most prominence under Krishnadevaraya.

Aravidu Dynasty (1570-1646): The Aftermath

Founded by Tirumala after the catastrophic Battle of Talikota (1565). This was a dynasty of decline and fragmentation.

Capital Shifts through AP:

1. Vijayanagara (Hampi) — destroyed 1565
2. Penugonda (West Godavari district, AP) — c. 1580
3. Chandragiri (Tirupati district, AP) — c. 1600
4. Vellore — final capital

The empire fragmented as Nayaka governors — especially the Telugu Nayaks of Madurai, Thanjavur, and Gingee — declared independence. The last Aravidu rulers were nominal kings. The dynasty effectively ended by the mid-17th century.

The Battle of Talikota (23 January 1565)

Also called the Battle of Rakshasi-Tangadi, this was the most catastrophic event in South Indian medieval history.

The Alliance Against Vijayanagara:

Course of Events:

1. Aliya Rama Raya, the de facto ruler (regent for the nominal king), commanded Vijayanagara's forces
2. Rama Raya had provoked the Sultanates by playing them against each other and humiliating their rulers
3. During the battle, two Muslim commanders in Vijayanagara's army (the Gilani brothers) defected to the Sultanate side, causing chaos
4. Rama Raya was captured and beheaded on the battlefield
5. His death caused mass panic and rout of the Vijayanagara army

Aftermath: The Destruction of Hampi The victorious Sultanate armies sacked Hampi for five months (February-July 1565) — destroying temples, palaces, markets, and irrigation works. The destruction of Vijayanagara city was one of the most devastating events in South Indian history. The city was never reoccupied as a capital.

Administration

Central Government:

The rulers used the title "Hindu Suratrana" — a Sanskritised form of the Arabic word "Sultan." They claimed to rule on behalf of the god Virupaksha (a form of Shiva) — the patron deity of Hampi.

The Amara-Nayaka System:

This was Vijayanagara's most important administrative institution. Military commanders (Nayakas/Amara-Nayakas) were assigned territories with three obligations:

1. Collect revenue from the assigned territory
2. Maintain armies for the king's use
3. Send annual tribute to the king

The system was inherited from the Kakatiya Nayankara system and refined. Similar to but distinct from the Delhi Sultanate's iqta system.

Territorial Divisions (descending): Rajya (province) > Mandala > Nadu > Sthala > Grama (village)

Land revenue was generally one-sixth of the produce.

Economy and Trade

Vijayanagara was one of the wealthiest kingdoms in the world during the 15th-16th centuries.

Trade Profile:

The Portuguese (arrived 1498) became important trading partners, especially for the horse trade.

Agriculture and Irrigation:

• Extensive irrigation: dams, canals, and tanks along the Tungabhadra River
• Kamalapuram tank and Hiriya canal were major engineering works
• Crops: rice, sugarcane (rainy areas); wheat, sorghum, cotton, pulses (semi-arid); cash crops: betel, areca, coconut

Cotton weaving was a major economic activity with products exported across the Indian Ocean.

Hampi: The City of Victory

Hampi was a massive urban centre with an estimated population of 500,000 — larger than contemporary Rome. It was protected by seven concentric lines of fortification encircling both the city and its agricultural hinterland.

City Zones:

1. Sacred Centre (northeastern, along the Tungabhadra) — temples and religious structures
2. Royal Centre (southwestern) — palaces, platforms, audience halls
3. Urban Core — markets, residential areas

Architectural Masterpieces

Hampi was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986.

Colonel Colin Mackenzie (later first Surveyor General of India) first documented Hampi's ruins in 1800.

Foreign Travellers to Vijayanagara

AP Connection

Vijayanagara is not just AP history — it IS AP's cultural identity in many ways:

1. All Eight Ashtadiggajas were from present-day Andhra Pradesh — from Rayalaseema and coastal Andhra regions. This makes the Vijayanagara literary legacy a distinctly AP cultural heritage.

2. Krishnadevaraya's title "Andhra Pitamaha" explicitly links the greatest Vijayanagara king to Telugu/Andhra identity.

3. Kondavidu and Udayagiri — major forts in present-day AP — were captured by Krishnadevaraya from the Gajapatis of Odisha. These are landmarks students can visit.

4. Masulipatnam (Machilipatnam) — the eastern coast port controlled by Vijayanagara — was a major maritime trade centre in AP.

5. Telugu Nayak Kingdoms: The Vijayanagara Nayaka system gave rise to Telugu Nayak kingdoms (Madurai, Thanjavur, Gingee) that continued Telugu cultural patronage after the empire's fall.

6. Aravidu Capital Shifts through AP: After Talikota, the dynasty moved through AP territory — from Penugonda (West Godavari) to Chandragiri (Tirupati district).

7. The Prabandha literary genre — the dominant form of Telugu literature during this period — remains a foundational part of Telugu literary heritage studied in AP schools and universities.

Master Timeline

Key Points for Revision

1. Founded in 1336 by brothers Harihara I and Bukka I at Hampi, on the Tungabhadra River, inspired by sage Vidyaranya.
2. Four dynasties in order: Sangama (1336-1485) > Saluva (1485-1505) > Tuluva (1505-1570) > Aravidu (1570-1646).
3. Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529) was the greatest ruler — empire at its zenith.
4. Krishnadevaraya's titles: "Abhinava Bhoja" and "Andhra Pitamaha."
5. Krishnadevaraya authored Amuktamalyada (Telugu) and two Sanskrit works.
6. Raichur Doab conquered from Bijapur (1512) — key territorial victory.
7. The Ashtadiggajas were eight Telugu court poets — ALL from present-day AP.
8. Allasani Peddana = "Andhra Kavita Pitamaha" = foremost Ashtadiggaja; wrote Manucharitamu.
9. Tenali Ramakrishna — most famous for wit; wrote Panduranga Mahatmyam.
10. The Prabandha genre was the dominant form of Telugu literature.
11. Battle of Talikota (23 January 1565): Alliance of four Sultanates destroyed Vijayanagara.
12. Gilani brothers' defection turned the battle against Vijayanagara.
13. Hampi was sacked for five months — never reoccupied as capital.
14. Amara-Nayaka system: military commanders assigned territories; collected revenue, maintained armies, sent tribute.
15. Hampi had 500,000 population, seven concentric fortification walls.
16. Vittala Temple: stone chariot and musical pillars. Virupaksha Temple: patron deity (Shiva).
17. Domingo Paes called Vijayanagara "the best provided city in the world."
18. Hampi = UNESCO World Heritage Site (1986).
19. Aravidu capitals shifted through AP: Penugonda (West Godavari) > Chandragiri (Tirupati district).
20. Vijayanagara's Nayaka system gave rise to Telugu Nayak kingdoms after the empire's fall.

Exam Strategy

Question Patterns

Exam Tips

• Ashtadiggajas and their works are the number one PYQ topic from Vijayanagara for AP exams. Memorise all 8 names, all 8 works, all 8 AP locations.
• Krishnadevaraya's Amuktamalyada (Telugu) — a king who was also a poet. This fact appears repeatedly.
• Battle of Talikota: four Sultanates, Gilani brothers' treachery, five months of destruction.
• Amara-Nayaka vs Mansabdari (Mughals) vs Nayankara (Kakatiyas) — comparative questions.
• Vittala Temple = stone chariot + musical pillars. Virupaksha Temple = patron deity temple.
• Four dynasties: Sangama > Saluva > Tuluva > Aravidu. The mnemonic "SSTA" may help.
• Allasani Peddana = "Andhra Kavita Pitamaha" = foremost poet. Do not confuse with Krishnadevaraya's title "Andhra Pitamaha."

Key Terms Glossary