Gandhian Era & Mass Movements

Introduction

Between 1917 and 1947, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi transformed the Indian freedom struggle from an elite political exercise into the largest mass movement in human history. Through four major campaigns — the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22), the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34), the Individual Satyagraha (1940), and the Quit India Movement (1942) — Gandhi mobilised millions of ordinary Indians: farmers, workers, women, students, and even children. His weapon was Satyagraha ("truth-force") — the idea that non-violent suffering awakens the conscience of the oppressor. This chapter is the most content-dense in the entire History syllabus. Every major movement, its cause, its course, its key personalities, and its outcome must be known in detail.

Historical Context

Gandhi returned to India in January 1915 after 21 years in South Africa, where he had developed Satyagraha as a political weapon against racial discrimination. India was in a state of political ferment: the extremist-moderate split had weakened Congress, the Home Rule movement had raised expectations, and World War I had deepened economic hardship. The Rowlatt Act (1919) and the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919) had shattered any remaining faith in British promises of reform. India was ready for a leader who could channel its anger into disciplined mass action.

Core Content

Gandhi's Early Movements in India (1917-1918)

Champaran Satyagraha (1917): Gandhi's first civil disobedience in India. He fought against the Tinkathia system, which forced indigo planters to cultivate indigo on 3/20th (15%) of their land. The system was abolished and peasants received 25% compensation. Key participants: Rajendra Prasad and J.B. Kripalani.

Ahmedabad Mill Strike (February 1918): Gandhi mediated between textile workers and mill owners. This was the first use of hunger strike as a political weapon in India. Workers received a 35% wage increase (they had demanded 50%; owners had offered 20%).

Kheda Satyagraha (1918): The first non-cooperation movement — peasants refused to pay land revenue after crop failure. The government agreed to collect only from those who could afford it. Vallabhbhai Patel earned the title "Sardar" for his leadership during this campaign.

Khilafat & Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922)

The Khilafat Movement (1919-1924) was a protest by Indian Muslims against the dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire and the dethronement of the Caliph after World War I. Its leaders included Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali (the Ali Brothers), and Maulana Hasrat Mohani.

Gandhi saw the Khilafat issue as an opportunity to unite Hindu-Muslim struggle and merged it with the Non-Cooperation Movement, which was launched in August 1920 at the Calcutta special session of the INC and confirmed at the Nagpur session in December 1920.

Programme of Non-Cooperation:

• Boycott of government schools, courts, and legislatures
• Surrender of British titles and honours
• Boycott of foreign cloth; promotion of khadi (hand-spun cloth)
• Non-participation in government functions

Impact: Thousands of students left government schools. Prominent lawyers like C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, and Rajendra Prasad gave up their practices. National institutions were founded: Jamia Millia Islamia (Delhi, 1920), Kashi Vidyapith (Varanasi), and Gujarat Vidyapith. The Tilak Swaraj Fund collected over one crore rupees.

The End — Chauri Chaura (5 February 1922): A mob set fire to a police station in Gorakhpur, UP, killing 22 policemen. Gandhi immediately called off the entire movement, believing it had turned violent and betrayed the principle of non-violence. He was arrested in March 1922 and sentenced to 6 years but released in 1924 due to ill health.

Swaraj Party & the Interim Period (1922-1929)

After Non-Cooperation was called off, the Swaraj Party was formed in 1923 by C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru to contest elections and obstruct the colonial legislature from within.

Simon Commission (1928): An all-British commission (no Indian members) sent to review India's constitutional progress. Indians protested with the slogan "Simon Go Back." Lala Lajpat Rai led a protest in Lahore, was brutally lathi-charged, and died on 17 November 1928.

Nehru Report (1928): Motilal Nehru's committee proposed Dominion Status for India.

Lahore Congress (December 1929): Under Jawaharlal Nehru's presidency, the INC declared "Purna Swaraj" (Complete Independence) as its goal. 26 January 1930 was celebrated as the first "Independence Day" — this date was later chosen as Republic Day.

Civil Disobedience Movement & the Salt March (1930-1934)

In January 1930, Gandhi presented 11 demands to Viceroy Lord Irwin, including abolishing the salt tax, reducing land revenue by 50%, and releasing political prisoners. Irwin refused. On 2 March 1930, Gandhi wrote to Irwin announcing his intention to break the salt law.

The Dandi March (12 March - 6 April 1930): Gandhi and 78 volunteers walked 387 km (241 miles) from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi, Gujarat, over 24 days. On 6 April 1930 at 8:30 AM, Gandhi picked up a lump of natural salt at the seashore, breaking the British salt monopoly law. He declared: "With this, I am shaking the foundations of the British Empire."

The Movement Spreads:

• Salt satyagraha went nationwide — people made salt on coasts across India
• Rajagopalachari led the Vedaranyam march in Tamil Nadu
• Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan ("Frontier Gandhi") organised the Khudai Khidmatgars (Red Shirts) in NWFP — a non-violent Pashtun movement
• Dharasana Salt Works raid (21 May 1930): Sarojini Naidu led 2,500 marchers; brutal police beating was witnessed by American journalist Webb Miller, whose report was published worldwide and turned global opinion against British rule
• Women participated en masse for the first time: they picketed liquor and foreign cloth shops
• By year-end 1930, over 60,000 people were imprisoned
• Nehru was arrested in April 1930; Gandhi on 5 May 1930

Round Table Conferences (1930-1932)

First RTC (Nov 1930 - Jan 1931): 73 delegates in London; Congress boycotted (its leaders were in jail).

Gandhi-Irwin Pact (5 March 1931): CDM was suspended; political prisoners released; salt manufacture for personal use permitted.

Second RTC (Sept - Dec 1931): Gandhi attended as the sole Congress representative. He failed to secure agreement as the British used divide-and-rule tactics with minorities (Ambedkar, Muslim League, princes).

Communal Award (August 1932): British PM Ramsay MacDonald announced separate electorates for Depressed Classes (Dalits).

Poona Pact (September 1932): Gandhi fasted against separate electorates for Dalits, arguing it would permanently divide Hindu society. Ambedkar agreed to a compromise: reserved seats within the general electorate instead of separate electorates. This was one of the most consequential agreements in Indian constitutional history.

Third RTC (Nov 1932): Only 46 delegates; both Congress and the British Labour Party boycotted.

Government of India Act 1935: The outcome of the RTCs — introduced provincial autonomy, proposed a federal structure (never implemented), and abolished dyarchy.

The 1937 and 1946 Elections

1937 Provincial Elections: Congress won 8 of 11 provinces under the GoI Act 1935, proving mass support. The Muslim League won only 109 of 482 Muslim seats — it still lacked a mass base.

1946 Elections: Congress swept the general seats. The Muslim League won 90% of Muslim seats — the Pakistan demand now had an electoral mandate.

Quit India Movement (1942)

Cripps Mission (March 1942): Sir Stafford Cripps offered Dominion Status after World War II with the right to secede. Congress rejected it. Gandhi called it "a post-dated cheque on a crashing bank."

Quit India Resolution: Passed on 8 August 1942 at the AICC session at Gowalia Tank Maidan, Bombay. Gandhi's call: "Do or Die" — "We shall either free India or die in the attempt." The movement was also called "August Kranti" (August Revolution).

British Response: All top Congress leaders were arrested within hours — Gandhi (Aga Khan Palace, Pune), Nehru (Ahmednagar Fort), Azad, and Patel. Kasturba Gandhi died in detention at Aga Khan Palace on 22 February 1944.

The Movement Goes Underground: With leadership imprisoned, the movement became decentralised. Underground leaders emerged: Jayaprakash Narayan, Ram Manohar Lohia, and Aruna Asaf Ali. Usha Mehta ran underground Congress Radio from Bombay.

Parallel Governments (Prati Sarkar): Established at Ballia (Chittu Pandey), Tamluk/Midnapore (Satish Samanta — Jatiya Sarkar), and Satara (Nana Patil — Prati Sarkar).

Scale of the Movement: 550 post offices attacked, 250 railway stations damaged, 70 police stations attacked, 2,500 instances of telegraph wires cut. Over 100,000 people arrested; deaths estimated between 1,000 and 10,000. Viceroy Linlithgow described it as "by far the most serious rebellion since 1857."

Other Key Events

Individual Satyagraha (October 1940): Gandhi launched a limited, symbolic protest against India's involuntary participation in WWII. Vinoba Bhave was chosen as the first satyagrahi.

INA & Subhas Chandra Bose: Bose formed the Indian National Army (1943) with Japanese support. His calls: "Dilli Chalo" (March to Delhi) and "Give me blood, I will give you freedom."

RIN Mutiny (February 1946): Royal Indian Navy ratings mutinied in Bombay, signalling that the British could no longer rely on Indian military loyalty.

Gandhi's Philosophy

Satyagraha = "truth-force" — non-violent resistance to unjust laws; the oppressed suffer willingly to awaken the conscience of the oppressor.

Constructive Programme: Khadi (hand-spinning), village industries, Hindu-Muslim unity, removal of untouchability, basic education (Nai Talim). Gandhi believed independence without social transformation was meaningless.

AP Connection

Andhra played a significant role in every Gandhian movement:

Chirala-Perala Movement (1921): Duggirala Gopalakrishnayya led 13,000 residents out of Chirala town to protest municipalisation and a ten-fold tax increase. He set up the settlement of Ramanagara and organised "Rama Dandu" (Rama's Army). Gandhi visited Chirala in 1921 and advised continuation of non-violent struggle. Gopalakrishnayya earned the title "Andhra Ratna."

Bezwada Congress (1921): The Vijayawada Congress session was a landmark for Andhra's nationalist movement, with Rama Dandu playing a prominent organisational role.

Tanguturi Prakasam Pantulu ("Andhra Kesari") protested the Simon Commission in 1928 in Madras, baring his chest to the police and saying "Shoot me."

Andhra Salt Satyagraha (1930): People made salt at coastal areas in Krishna and Guntur districts during the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Potti Sreeramulu participated in the Salt Satyagraha (1930), Individual Satyagraha (1941), and Quit India Movement (1942) — arrested three times. He would later give his life for the creation of Andhra State.

Key Points

1. Gandhi returned to India in January 1915; developed Satyagraha in South Africa.
2. Champaran (1917) — first civil disobedience in India; fought Tinkathia system.
3. Kheda (1918) — first non-cooperation; Patel earned "Sardar" title.
4. Non-Cooperation Movement launched August 1920; merged with Khilafat Movement.
5. Chauri Chaura (5 February 1922) — mob killed 22 policemen; Gandhi called off NCM.
6. Lahore Congress (December 1929) — declared Purna Swaraj; 26 January = first Independence Day.
7. Dandi March: 12 March - 6 April 1930; 387 km; 78 volunteers; Gandhi picked up salt.
8. Dharasana raid (21 May 1930) — Sarojini Naidu led; Webb Miller's report shocked the world.
9. Gandhi-Irwin Pact (5 March 1931) — CDM suspended; political prisoners released.
10. Poona Pact (September 1932) — Gandhi vs. Ambedkar on separate electorates for Dalits.
11. GoI Act 1935 — provincial autonomy; federal structure (never implemented).
12. Quit India (8 August 1942) — "Do or Die"; Gowalia Tank Maidan, Bombay.
13. All Congress leaders arrested within hours; movement went underground.
14. Parallel governments: Ballia, Tamluk, Satara.
15. Cripps Mission rejected — "post-dated cheque on a crashing bank."
16. INA formed by Bose (1943) — "Dilli Chalo" and "Give me blood."
17. RIN Mutiny (February 1946) — broke British confidence in Indian military loyalty.
18. In AP: Chirala-Perala Movement (1921); Salt Satyagraha in Krishna-Guntur; Prakasam's Simon Commission protest.
19. 1937 elections: Congress won 8/11 provinces; Muslim League lacked mass support.
20. 1946 elections: Muslim League won 90% Muslim seats — Pakistan demand had electoral mandate.

Exam Strategy

• Know the chronology of Gandhian movements: Champaran (1917) > Ahmedabad/Kheda (1918) > NCM (1920-22) > CDM (1930-34) > Individual Satyagraha (1940) > Quit India (1942).
• Match movement to cause: NCM = Khilafat + Rowlatt; CDM = salt tax + Purna Swaraj; QIM = Cripps Mission failure + WWII.
• Chauri Chaura ended NCM — know the date (5 Feb 1922), the place (Gorakhpur, UP), and the reason (22 policemen killed).
• Dandi March details are asked extensively: 387 km, 78 volunteers, 12 March to 6 April, Sabarmati to Dandi.
• Poona Pact: Gandhi vs. Ambedkar; result = reserved seats within general electorate (not separate electorates).
• GoI Act 1935: provincial autonomy. Know this replaced dyarchy.
• Quit India: "Do or Die"; Gowalia Tank; August Kranti; all leaders arrested; Linlithgow's quote.
• AP-specific: Chirala-Perala (Gopalakrishnayya, "Andhra Ratna"); Prakasam ("Andhra Kesari", Simon Commission); Salt Satyagraha in Krishna-Guntur.

Key Terms Glossary