Post-Maurya Period (c. 200 BCE – 300 CE)

Subject: History | Unit: Ancient India | Topic: Post-Maurya Period Exam: AP Group 2 (APPSC) — Paper I, Ancient India Prerequisites: Maurya Dynasty

Introduction

The fall of the Maurya Empire in 185 BCE did not plunge India into chaos — it opened one of the most dynamic and culturally productive periods in Indian history. For roughly 500 years, no single empire controlled the entire subcontinent. Instead, a constellation of dynasties — Indian and foreign — competed, traded, and exchanged ideas across a vast geography stretching from Central Asia to the tip of the Deccan.

For the APPSC exam, this period is critical for two reasons. First, it produced an extraordinary number of "firsts" — the first coins with royal portraits, the first long Sanskrit inscription, the first gold coins, the first land grants — all of which are high-frequency exam questions. Second, this is the period of the Satavahanas, the dynasty most directly connected to Andhra Pradesh's ancient identity, and the builders of the great stupa at Amaravati.

This chapter covers the Shunga and Kanva dynasties that replaced the Mauryas in the north, the waves of foreign rulers (Indo-Greeks, Shakas, and Kushanas) who entered from the northwest, the Satavahana empire that unified the Deccan, the booming Indo-Roman trade economy, and the rise of the Sangam-age kingdoms in the deep south.

Historical Context

When Pushyamitra Shunga assassinated the last Mauryan emperor Brihadratha in 185 BCE, the centralized Mauryan state fractured almost immediately. The vast territory that Ashoka had governed — from Afghanistan to Karnataka — broke apart into regional kingdoms. This fragmentation, however, was not decline. It was diversification.

The northern plains passed to the Shungas and then the Kanvas — Brahmanical dynasties that reversed many of Ashoka's Buddhist policies. The northwest became a corridor for successive waves of foreign invaders — Indo-Greeks from Bactria, Shakas (Scythians) from Central Asia, Parthians from Iran, and Kushanas from the Yuezhi tribal confederation. Each group left a lasting mark on Indian culture, coinage, art, and religion. The Deccan came under the Satavahanas, who built the first major empire south of the Vindhyas. And the deep south saw the three Tamil kingdoms — Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas — flourish in what is known as the Sangam Age.

Economically, this was a period of unprecedented trade. Indian goods — spices, textiles, precious stones, ivory — flowed westward to the Roman Empire, and Roman gold flowed back in enormous quantities. Ports on both coasts became cosmopolitan trading hubs. Guilds grew powerful enough to function as banks. And the religious landscape was transformed as Mahayana Buddhism emerged under Kushana patronage, Brahmanical Hinduism revived under the Shungas, and Buddhist and Jain institutions received land grants for the first time.

Timeline of Major Events

Core Content

1. The Shunga Dynasty (185–73 BCE)

Foundation and Character

The Shunga dynasty was founded by Pushyamitra Shunga, the commander-in-chief (senapati) of the last Mauryan king Brihadratha. Pushyamitra was a Brahmin general — a fact that is significant because his dynasty is closely associated with the revival of Brahmanical traditions after the long period of state-supported Buddhism under the Mauryas.

Pushyamitra performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice (horse sacrifice), a Vedic ritual of sovereignty that had not been conducted during the Buddhist-oriented Mauryan period. This act was a deliberate statement of Brahmanical reassertion. The Shungas ruled from Pataliputra (modern Patna) and their territory covered much of the central Gangetic plain.

Cultural Contributions

Despite the political upheaval that brought them to power, the Shungas presided over a period of significant artistic achievement. The great Buddhist monuments at Bharhut and Sanchi were embellished with elaborate gateways (toranas) and stone railings during the Shunga period. This is a crucial point — even though the Shungas are associated with Brahmanical revival, Buddhist art continued to flourish under their rule. The state may have shifted patronage, but Buddhist institutions had become wealthy and self-sustaining through donations from merchants and guilds.

The great grammarian Patanjali, author of the Mahabhashya (the "Great Commentary" on Panini's Ashtadhyayi grammar), lived during Pushyamitra's reign. The Mahabhashya is not merely a grammar text — it is one of our most important historical sources for the Shunga period, containing incidental references to contemporary events and social conditions.

Decline

The last Shunga ruler, Devabhuti, was overthrown by his own minister Vasudeva Kanva in 73 BCE.

2. The Kanva Dynasty (73–28 BCE)

The Kanvas were a short-lived Brahmin dynasty that replaced the Shungas. Only four rulers governed for approximately 45 years. They continued the Brahmanical policies of the Shungas but controlled an even smaller territory, as regional powers had carved away much of the old Shunga domain.

The Kanvas were ultimately overthrown by the Satavahanas, marking the beginning of Deccan dominance in Indian politics.

3. The Indo-Greeks (Bactrian Greeks) (c. 200 BCE–10 CE)

Origin and Arrival

The Indo-Greeks were descendants of the garrisons and settlers left behind by Alexander's campaigns in Central Asia. After Alexander's death, the eastern portions of his empire became the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (in modern Afghanistan and Central Asia). From there, Greek kings pushed eastward into the Indian subcontinent, becoming the first foreign rulers to invade India after Alexander himself.

Menander (Milinda)

The most celebrated Indo-Greek king was Menander (known in Indian texts as Milinda), who ruled around 160 BCE. His kingdom was centred in the northwest, with his capital likely at Sagala (modern Sialkot in Pakistan). Menander is remembered not for his military conquests but for his intellectual engagement with Buddhism. His philosophical dialogues with the Buddhist monk Nagasena are recorded in the Milindapanho ("Questions of Milinda"), one of the most important texts in Buddhist literature. According to tradition, Menander eventually converted to Buddhism.

Key Contributions

The Indo-Greeks made several lasting contributions to Indian civilisation:

• Coinage revolution: They were the first rulers in India to issue coins bearing the king's portrait — gold and silver coins of remarkable artistic quality with Greek legends on one side and Prakrit/Kharoshthi legends on the other. This bilingual coinage tradition influenced all subsequent Indian dynasties.
• Hellenistic art influence: Greek artistic traditions blended with Indian Buddhist themes to create the foundations of the Gandhara school of art, which would later produce the first anthropomorphic (human-form) images of the Buddha.
• Calendar and astronomy: Greek astronomical knowledge entered India through the Indo-Greek kingdoms.

4. The Shakas (Scythians) (c. 90 BCE–400 CE)

Origin

The Shakas were Central Asian nomadic people who were pushed southward by other nomadic groups (the Yuezhi) and displaced the Indo-Greeks in northwestern India. They established several branches of rule across western and northwestern India. The western branch, ruling from Ujjain in central India, became particularly powerful and long-lasting.

Rudradaman I (c. 130–150 CE)

The most famous Shaka ruler was Rudradaman I of the Western Kshatrapas. He is historically significant for two reasons:

1. The Junagadh Rock Inscription (in Gujarat): This is the first long inscription in Sanskrit (as opposed to Prakrit, which had been the standard administrative language since the Mauryas). The shift from Prakrit to Sanskrit for official purposes marks a major turning point in Indian cultural history.

2. Repair of Sudarshana Lake: Rudradaman repaired the famous Sudarshana Lake in Gujarat, which had originally been constructed during Chandragupta Maurya's time and later improved under Ashoka. The inscription recording this repair is our main source of information about Rudradaman's achievements and character.

End of the Shakas

The Shakas of western India were eventually destroyed by Chandragupta II of the Gupta dynasty around 409 CE, ending over four centuries of Shaka presence in India.

5. The Kushana Empire (c. 1st–3rd century CE)

The Kushanas represent the most significant of the foreign dynasties that entered India during this period. Their empire, at its height, stretched from Central Asia to the Gangetic plain — a vast domain that facilitated trade, cultural exchange, and the spread of Buddhism across Asia.

Origins and Early Rulers

The Kushanas belonged to the Yuezhi tribe, a Central Asian nomadic confederation. After being displaced from their original homeland in western China, the Yuezhi migrated westward and eventually conquered Bactria (northern Afghanistan). From there, one branch — the Kushanas — extended their power into the Indian subcontinent.

Kujula Kadphises was the founder of the Kushana dynasty in India. His successor, Vima Kadphises, is notable for issuing the first gold coins in India — a significant development in Indian monetary history. (Note the distinction: the Indo-Greeks issued the first coins with a king's portrait; Vima Kadphises issued the first gold coins.)

Kanishka (c. 78–101 CE)

Kanishka was the greatest Kushana ruler and one of the most important figures in all of Indian history. His contributions span politics, religion, art, and science:

Political achievements:

• His empire extended from Central Asia to Varanasi in the east, with his capital at Purushapura (modern Peshawar, Pakistan).
• He adopted the title "Devaputra" (Son of God), influenced by the Chinese imperial concept of the "Son of Heaven."
• He is believed to have started the Saka Era in 78 CE, which is now used as the Indian national calendar.

Religious patronage:

• Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism. He convened the Fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir, which was a landmark event in the history of Buddhism.
• Under his patronage, Mahayana Buddhism developed and crystallised as a distinct school. Mahayana Buddhism — with its emphasis on the Bodhisattva ideal, salvation for all beings, and elaborate religious art — was fundamentally different from the earlier Theravada tradition.
• Ashvaghosha, the great Buddhist scholar and poet who authored the Buddhacharita (a biography of the Buddha in Sanskrit verse), lived at Kanishka's court.

Art and culture:

• The Gandhara and Mathura schools of art both flourished under Kushana patronage, producing some of the finest sculptures in Indian history.

The Two Great Art Schools

The Amaravati school (discussed in the AP-specific section below) is the third great art school of this period, associated with the Satavahana dynasty.

Science and Medicine

The Kushana period is also associated with two of India's greatest medical scholars:

• Charaka — court physician, author of the Charaka Samhita, a foundational text of Ayurvedic medicine dealing with internal medicine and diagnosis.
• Sushruta — surgeon, author of the Sushruta Samhita, which describes surgical techniques including rhinoplasty (nose reconstruction), cataract surgery, and over 120 surgical instruments.

6. The Satavahana Dynasty (c. 230 BCE–220 CE)

The Satavahanas are the most important post-Mauryan dynasty for the Deccan and South India. They are also the most important dynasty in the ancient history of Andhra Pradesh, and a high-priority topic for the APPSC exam.

Foundation and Names

The dynasty was founded by Simuka, who established his capital at Pratishthana (modern Paithan in Maharashtra). The Satavahanas are also known as Andhras in the Puranas, reflecting their association with the Andhra region. Their territory at its peak encompassed present-day Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and parts of Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat.

Gautamiputra Satakarni (c. 106–130 CE)

Gautamiputra Satakarni was the greatest Satavahana ruler and the one who restored the dynasty to its full glory. His military achievements were extraordinary — he defeated the Shakas (Scythians), Yavanas (Indo-Greeks), and Pahlavas (Parthians), three foreign powers that had been encroaching on Indian territory.

His mother Gautami Balashri's inscription at Nashik (the Nashik Prashasti) describes him as the "destroyer of the pride of Kshatriyas" — a remarkable claim that suggests he challenged the traditional Kshatriya monopoly on royal power.

Vashishthiputra Pulumayi

Gautamiputra's son and successor, Vashishthiputra Pulumayi, continued the dynasty's cultural patronage. During his reign, the great Amaravati Stupa was embellished with its famous marble relief panels.

Distinctive Features of Satavahana Rule

Matrilineal naming convention: Satavahana kings bore their mothers' names — Gautamiputra (son of Gautami), Vashishthiputra (son of Vashishthi). This is unique among Indian dynasties and suggests that women held significant social status in Satavahana society. Note: this does not mean the dynasty followed matrilineal succession; the kings inherited from their fathers, but identified themselves through their mothers' names.

Land grants — the beginning of feudalism: The Satavahanas were the first rulers to grant land to Brahmins and Buddhist monks on a systematic basis. These grants gave religious communities permanent revenue sources and laid the foundation for the feudal system that would dominate medieval India.

Religious tolerance: The Satavahanas patronised both Brahmanical and Buddhist traditions. The kings themselves performed Vedic sacrifices, but they also donated generously to Buddhist monasteries and stupas.

Language and coinage: The official language of the Satavahana administration was Prakrit. Their coins bore bilingual legends in Prakrit and early Dravidian (Telugu-Kannada) script — making these coins important evidence for the early history of the Telugu language.

7. Trade and Economy in the Post-Maurya Period

The post-Maurya period witnessed an enormous expansion of trade, both overland and maritime. This was particularly true from the 1st century BCE to the 2nd century CE, when direct sea routes between India and the Roman Empire were established.

Indo-Roman Trade

Major Ports

Guilds (Shreni)

Guilds were powerful economic organisations in this period. They controlled production, trade, and banking. A guild of weavers, for instance, would regulate the quality of cloth, set prices, manage trade relationships, and even accept deposits and lend money — functioning much like a combined trade union, chamber of commerce, and bank. Guilds had their own seals and were recognised by the state as legal entities.

8. The Sangam Age Connection

The three ancient Tamil kingdoms — Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas — flourished during this same period (c. 300 BCE–300 CE). They are covered in detail in the separate chapter on South Indian Kingdoms, but it is important to note here that these kingdoms were not isolated from the northern and Deccan powers. The Satavahanas were contemporary with all three Tamil kingdoms, and trade networks connected the Tamil ports to the Deccan, the northern plains, and the Roman world simultaneously.

Sangam literature — the great anthologies of Tamil poetry compiled in three literary assemblies (Sangams) at Madurai under Pandya patronage — is the primary source for this period in the deep south.

Andhra Pradesh Connection

The post-Maurya period is foundational for AP's historical identity. The connections are deep and wide-ranging:

The Satavahanas: AP's Imperial Dynasty

The Satavahanas are not merely an "AP dynasty" — they were the first major imperial power to emerge from the Deccan, and their heartland included the Krishna-Godavari delta region that forms the core of modern Andhra Pradesh. For APPSC purposes, the Satavahanas are arguably the single most important ancient dynasty.

Amaravati: The Third Great Art School

Amaravati (in Guntur district, AP) was a major Satavahana centre and the site of one of the greatest Buddhist stupas in India. The Amaravati school of art (2nd–3rd century CE) is recognized as the third great art school of ancient India, alongside Gandhara and Mathura.

The Andhra Ikshvakus (c. 225–340 CE)

After the Satavahana decline around 220 CE, the Ikshvaku dynasty rose to power in the Krishna River valley with their capital at Vijayapuri (modern Nagarjunakonda, in Guntur district). The Ikshvakus present a fascinating religious duality:

• The Ikshvaku kings followed Vedic religion and performed Hindu rituals.
• The Ikshvaku queens were great patrons of Buddhism — inscriptions at Nagarjunakonda record their generous donations to monasteries and viharas.

Nagarjunakonda became an international centre of Buddhist learning, attracting scholars from China, Gandhara, Bengal, and Sri Lanka. This made the AP region a global crossroads of Buddhist intellectual exchange during the 3rd and 4th centuries CE.

Other AP-Specific Sites and Artefacts

Machilipatnam (Masulipatnam): An important port on the AP coast during the Satavahana period, connecting the Deccan to maritime trade routes across the Indian Ocean.

Salihundam (Srikakulam district, AP): Contains important Buddhist remains — stupas, viharas (monasteries), and chaityas (prayer halls) — dating from the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century CE. This site demonstrates that Buddhism had a strong presence in northern AP long before the Ikshvakus.

Bhattiprolu (Guntur district, AP): Contains inscriptions in early Brahmi script variants that are considered precursors to the Telugu script. These inscriptions are among the earliest evidence of the linguistic identity that would eventually develop into the Telugu language.

Satavahana coins in AP: Coins of Gautamiputra Satakarni have been found extensively across AP, bearing bilingual legends in Prakrit and early Telugu-Kannada script. These coins are important artefacts for the history of the Telugu language and its script.

Key Points Summary

1. The Maurya Empire fell in 185 BCE when Pushyamitra Shunga assassinated Brihadratha — India fragmented into multiple kingdoms for approximately 500 years.
2. The Shungas (185–73 BCE) revived Brahmanical traditions but Buddhist art continued at Bharhut and Sanchi. Patanjali (Mahabhashya) lived during this period.
3. The Kanvas (73–28 BCE) were a brief Brahmin dynasty of four rulers, overthrown by the Satavahanas.
4. Indo-Greeks introduced the first coins with a king's portrait and contributed to the development of Gandhara art. Menander (Milinda) and the Milindapanho are the key exam facts.
5. Rudradaman I (Shaka) composed the first long Sanskrit inscription (Junagadh) and repaired Sudarshana Lake.
6. Vima Kadphises (Kushana) issued the first gold coins in India.
7. Kanishka started the Saka Era (78 CE), convened the Fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir, and patronised Mahayana Buddhism.
8. Gandhara school (Greco-Roman influence) produced the first human images of Buddha; Mathura school (purely Indian); Amaravati school (Satavahana, white marble).
9. Charaka (Charaka Samhita, medicine) and Sushruta (Sushruta Samhita, surgery) are associated with the Kushana period.
10. Satavahanas were the most important Deccan dynasty — founded by Simuka, capital at Pratishthana (Paithan).
11. Gautamiputra Satakarni was the greatest Satavahana ruler — defeated Shakas, Yavanas, and Pahlavas.
12. Satavahanas had a matrilineal naming convention — kings bore their mothers' names.
13. Satavahanas were the first to grant land systematically to Brahmins and Buddhist monks — beginnings of feudalism.
14. Indo-Roman trade was massive — India exported spices and textiles; Rome exported gold coins. Key sources: Periplus and Ptolemy's Geography.
15. Guilds (shreni) controlled production, trade, and banking in this period.
16. Amaravati stupa (Guntur, AP) is the masterpiece of Satavahana art — white marble narrative panels.
17. Ikshvakus (c. 225–340 CE) ruled from Nagarjunakonda — queens patronised Buddhism, kings followed Vedic religion.
18. Nagarjunakonda was an international Buddhist learning centre attracting scholars from China, Gandhara, Bengal, and Sri Lanka.
19. Bhattiprolu inscriptions (Guntur, AP) contain early Brahmi script variants that are precursors to Telugu script.
20. Machilipatnam was a major Satavahana-era port on the AP coast.

Exam Strategy

Question Patterns

Negative Marking Strategy

• AP Group 2 marking: +1 correct, -0.333 wrong, 0 skipped.
• This topic is rich in "first" questions with definitive answers — if you know the fact, answer confidently.
• Tricky distinctions: "First gold coins" (Vima Kadphises) vs. "First coins with king's image" (Indo-Greeks) — read the question carefully.
• If confused between Gandhara and Mathura school features, remember: Gandhara = Greco-Roman = Grey sandstone. Mathura = purely Indian = Red sandstone.
• Skip questions about obscure minor rulers — focus study time on Kanishka, Gautamiputra Satakarni, Menander, and Rudradaman I.

Time Allocation

• This is a fact-dense topic with many discrete questions. Each question should take 30–45 seconds — you either know the fact or you don't.
• Do not spend more than 1 minute on any single question from this topic.

Key Terms Glossary